Kamus Demografi Pelbagai Bahasa, Edisi Kedua, Volum Bahasa Malaysia

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801

The study of spatial mobility¹ or geographic mobility¹ is concerned with the quantitative aspects of moves² made by individuals in geographic space. The distinguishing characteristic of migration³ is that it involves a change in usual place of residence (310-6*) and implies movement across an administrative boundary. The administrative unit left by the migrant is the place of origin⁴ or place of departure⁴; the unit to which the migrant goes is the place of destination⁵ or place of arrival⁵. The concept of migration is often not applied to moves made by persons without a fixed place of residence, for example, nomads are excluded from the count of migrants in many countries. In practice it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between migration, which implies a relatively permanent change of residence, and temporary moves⁶, except on the basis of criteria of length of absence⁷ from the place of origin or duration of stay⁸ at the place of destination. In general, geographic mobility does not include short-term trips which involve no change of usual residence, even though such moves may deserve study because of their economic and social importance. Commuting⁹ involves the daily or weekly journey from place of residence to place of work or schooling; seasonal moves¹⁰ ° have a yearly periodicity. Transits¹¹, which are moves across a territory to reach a destination, do not involve migration with respect to the territory crossed. Tourist traffic¹² or vacationing¹² also are not included in geographic mobility.

802

When migration is observed over time, it is convenient to compare the place of residence at a fixed past date¹ or the place of last previous residence² with the place of current residence³. An individual whose administrative unit of residence differs at the beginning and end of a certain interval is identified as a migrant⁴. Migrants may be classified as emigrants⁵ or out-migrants⁵ with respect to their place of origin and as immigrants⁶ or in-migrants⁶ with respect to their place of current residence. When a census or survey has included a question on previous place of residence², the information generated concerns in fact the latest migration⁷ or latest change of residence⁷, whatever its date. A migrant is any individual who has had at least one prior residence in a different administrative unit from his or her current residence; such an individual can be considered to have migrated into⁸ the current residence, and migrated out⁹ of the previous one. A lifetime migrant¹¹ is a person whose place of birth¹⁰ was in a different administrative unit from his or her current residence. In specific cases, migrants can be qualified as emigrants for political, religious or ethical reasons12, or immigrants for political, religious or ethical reasons13.

803

The population of a sovereign country (305-3) may be involved in internal migration¹ when both place of departure (801-4) and place of destination (801-5) are within the country, or in international migration² which occurs across national boundaries. The term external migration³ is sometimes encountered in the latter sense. International migration is called immigration⁴ or emigration⁵ according to whether the country in question is the country of destination or the country of origin. When the country is divided into sub-areas, movement within the boundaries of each sub-area are local moves⁶ and constitute residential mobility⁶, while movement between sub-areas is called in-migration⁷ or out-migration⁸ depending on whether the sub-area considered is the place of destination or the place of origin for the migrants. A migration stream⁹ is a group of migrants having a common origin and destination. The larger stream between two sub-areas is called the dominant stream¹⁰ and the smaller the counterstream¹¹.

804

When an individual migrates several times during a certain period, his or her moves may be distinguished according to the order of migration¹. The duration of residence² or duration of stay² refers either to the interval between the arrival in a place and the subsequent departure for another destination or to the interval since the most recent move. Return migration³ involves movement back either to the initial area, or to any previous place of residence. Repeat migration⁴ or chronic migration⁴ refers to a tendency to migrate several times over a relatively short time interval. Rural-urban migration⁵ sometimes takes the form of serial migration⁶, stage migration⁶ or step migration⁶, as migrants tend to move to large cities as a final place of destination by a series of shorter, intermediate migrations to cities or areas of successively larger size.

805

The contribution of migration (801-3) to overall population growth (701-1) is due to net migration², i.e., the difference between the number of arrivals³ and the number of departures⁴. Net migration can have a negative or a positive sign; net immigration⁵ or net in-migration⁵ is used when arrivals exceed departures, and net emigration⁶ or net out-migration⁶ when the opposite is true. The sum of arrivals and departures in a country can be used to measure the volume of migration⁷. A similar concept, applied to sub-areas of a country, is the migration turnover⁸. The net stream⁹ or net interchange⁹ of migration between two areas is defined as the difference between the stream (803-9) and the counterstream (803-11), whereas the gross interchange¹⁰ is the sum of stream and counterstream.

806

Spontaneous migration¹, voluntary migration¹ or free migration¹ is the result of the initiative and free choice of the migrants. In the absence of concerted action, the movement is referred to as individual migration². When entire families are moving together, the term family migration³ is sometimes encountered. Secondary migration⁴ or ancillary migration⁴ is induced by the movement of others, as when children follow the head of the family. An example of such migration is family reunification9, which pertains to the migration of family members, including children, of the family head. The movement of workers or of members of the labor force in response to employment opportunities is referred to as labor migration⁵. Moves occurring as a result of marriage and when individuals retire from the labor force are sometimes referred to respectively as marriage migration⁶ or retirement migration⁷. Templat:NewTextTerm or Templat:NewTextTerm refers to a pattern of migration to specific places of destination, where a prospective migrant has a relative (114-3*) or friend who has established a residence and is willing to provide information and support.

807

Where groups of individuals or families decide to migrate together collective migration¹ or group migration¹ will result. Mass migration² involves a very large number of migrants. The term exodus³ may be used for a sudden mass migration caused by some emergency or catastrophe.

808

Voluntary migration (806-1) contrasts with forced migration¹, in which individuals are compelled by public authorities to move. Repatriation² applies to forced return of individuals to their country of origin. Another example of forced migration is the expulsion³ from their places of abode either of individuals or of whole groups of people. The term evacuation⁴ is generally reserved for the movement of whole populations in order to safeguard them from some catastrophe, such as earthquakes, floods, operations of war or the like. A refugee⁵ has usually migrated on his own volition, though there may have been strong pressure on him to migrate because his continued stay in his country of origin may have exposed him to danger of persecution. A displaced person⁶ is a person who has been moved by a public authority from his place of origin. This move may have taken place as a result of large-scale displacement of population⁷ or population transfer⁷, or population exchange⁸.

809

The process by which immigrants adjust themselves to conditions in the area of destination falls into several categories: naturalization (331-1), the acquisition of legal citizenship; absorption¹ the entry into productive economic activity; assimilation³, integration into the social structure on terms of equality; and acculturation² the adoption of the customs and values of the population in the place of destination.

810

When immigrants from a particular territory do not assimilate in their new country but retain the customs of their place of origin (801-3), they are called a colony¹. When the receiving country is already inhabited, this raises problems of coexistence² between different populations. These may be solved by the fusion³ of the populations, i.e. by the disappearance of recognizable differences, or by the integration⁴ of one of the populations into the other. Segregation⁵ exists in a territory where two or more populations live but remain separated by barriers imposed by custom or by the force of law.

811

Migration policy¹ is one aspect of population policy (105-2). Most countries through their immigration laws², restrict the admittance of foreign nationals. These laws frequently provide for selective immigration³ of persons with certain specified characteristics. Some countries have established quota systems⁴ whereby the number of immigrants is fixed in relation to the national origin⁵. Measures designed to influence the redistribution of population⁶ within a country through internal migration (803-1) are usually more indirect in character.