Kamus Demografi Pelbagai Bahasa, Edisi Kedua, Volum Bahasa Malaysia

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632

Istilah umum kadar kelahiran¹ merujuk kepada kadar yang dikira dengan menghubungkan bilangan kelahiran hidup dalam populasi atau sub-populasi semasa sesuatu jangkamasa kepada saiz populasi atau sub-populasi semasa jangkamasa tersebut. Kadar ini kebiasaannya dinyatakan dengan per 1,000 dan bagi jangkamasa selama setahun. Apabila istilah kadar kelahiran digunakan tanpa sebarang syarat, ia dinamakan sebagai kadar kelahiran kasar², dan semua kelahiran hidup adalah berkaitan dengan keseluruhan populasi. Kadar kelahiran jumlah³ adalah berdasarkan kepada kelahrian hidup dan kadangkala kematian fetus lewat turut diambilkira. Kadar kelahiran sah⁴ dan kadar kelahiran luar nikah⁵ dikira dengan mengambil kelahiran sah dan luar nikah sebagai pengangka dan populasi wanita masih berkahwin dan tidak pernah berkahwin sebagai penyebut. Nisbah anak luar nikah⁶, kebiasaannya digunakan sebagai bilangan anak luar nikah bagi setiap 1,000 kelahiran. Untuk membandingkan kesuburan bagi populasi yang berbeza, kadar kelahiran seragam⁷ digunakan untuk menghapuskan kesan kadar kelahiran bagi perbezaan tertentu dalam struktur penduduk (kebiasaannya struktur umur dan jantina). Nisbah kanak-kanak-wanita⁸ kebiasaannya adalah bilangan kanak-kanak berumur 0 hingga 4 bagi setiap 1,000 wanita dalam umur reproduktif, sebagai contoh 15 hingga 49, digunakan sebagai indeks kesuburan apabila statistik kelahiran yang sahih sukar diperolehi.

633

The term fertility rate¹ is often used when the denominator of the birth rate fraction is restricted to a group of individuals of the same sex in the reproductive ages (620-1). This denominator is commonly the mid-year population in the stated period, but it may also be the number of years lived by the group during the period, or the mean size of the group. Unless otherwise indicated, these rates are female fertility rates², and the rates are calculated for groups of women; the number of years lived by a given number of women in an interval is called the number of woman years³. Male fertility rates⁴ are computed sometimes in an analogous manner. Fertility rates are generally expressed as births per thousand (implied: individuals of the same category — sex, age, marital status, etc. — cf. 133-4*). Marital fertility rates⁵ or legitimate fertility rates⁵ relate the total number of legitimate births (610-3) to the number of currently married women; non-marital fertility rates⁶ or illegitimate fertility rates⁶ relate the total number of illegitimate births (610-4) to the number of single, widowed and divorced women. Overall fertility rates⁷ make no distinction according to the legitimacy (610-1) of the births or the marital status of the parents. The general fertility rate⁸ relates the total number of births to all women of reproductive age regardless of marital status. Rates based on a narrower age range (usually one-year or five-year age groups) are called age-specific fertility rates⁹ or age-specific birth rates⁹.

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Order-specific fertility rates¹ relate births of a certain order to a number of women, to a number of marriages or to a number of births of the preceding order. Parity-specific fertility rates² or parity-specific birth rates² not only restrict the numerator to births of a given order, but also restrict the denominator to the women of the parity (611-6) at risk (134-2), e.g., second order births to one-parity women. Such rates are usually age-specific or duration-specific. In parity-specific birth probabilities³, the numerator consists of the number of births of order x + 1 occurring during a period, and the denominator consists of the number of women of parity x at the beginning of the same period.

635

When studying marital fertility¹ it is possible to arrange the data by marriage cohorts (116-2) of the mothers, and marriage duration-specific fertility rates² are often computed in preference to age-specific marital fertility rates³.

636

The term cohort fertility¹ refers to the reproductive performance of particular birth or marriage cohorts (116-2). When the age-specific or marriage duration-specific fertility rates are summed from the cohort’s beginning of exposure to risk until some later date, we speak of cumulative fertility². Completed fertility⁴ or lifetime fertility⁴ is the cumulative fertility until the date when all members of the cohort have reached the end of the reproductive period. The sum of the products of the fertility rates of the cohort by the probability of survival of the women to successive ages could be called the cumulative net fertility⁵ of the cohort.

637

Censuses and surveys may provide information on fertility when they include questions on the number of children born to enumerated women or couples, either during the current marriage¹, or overall. The mean number of children ever born per woman² or average parity² can be computed. The number of children per couple is sometimes called average family size³. It is also possible to calculate the mean number of births per marriage⁴. Special attention is paid to marriages of completed fertility⁵, those in which the wife had reached the end of the reproductive years before the marriage was dissolved. The final parity⁶ or completed parity⁶, i.e., the mean number of children per woman past the childbearing age, is not very different from completed fertility (636-4). The tabulation of final parity or completed fertility by number of children serves to compute series of parity progression ratios⁷; these are fractions whose denominator is the number of women with n children, and whose numerator is the number of women with n + 1 children. Special studies yield information on family formation⁸ and the family life cycle⁸. Among those, birth intervals (612-1) and the age at the birth of the last child¹⁰ for women of completed fertility are of particular interest.

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Fertility histories¹ or reproductive histories¹ are accounts obtained for individual women of the important events in their reproductive lives, such as marriages, pregnancies, births, infant deaths, etc., and their dates. Fertility histories are often obtained retrospectively from surveys. Family forms¹ are used in historical demography (102-1), where they are established for a married couple and its children by family reconstitution² on the basis of vital records (211-3). A woman’s pregnancy history³ or pregnancy record³ contains detailed information about her pregnancies including the date when each began and ended, and the outcome of the pregnancy. Such detailed records on the timing of fertility have been used for various purposes. For example, they can provide information on natural fertility⁴, i.e., fertility in the absence of family limitation (624-4). They are also used to estimate fecundability⁵, the probability of conceiving per menstrual cycle (622-2). A distinction is made between natural fecundability⁶, in the absence of contraception, and residual fecundability⁷ in the opposite instance. The term effective fecundability⁸ designates a fecundability that is reckoned in terms of conceptions that result in live births only. The conception rate⁹ during the period of exposure to risk (613-1) is used to measure the effectiveness of contraception during periods of contraceptive use.

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A summary index of period fertility¹, i.e., the fertility of a particular year or period, computed by the summation of the series of age-specific fertility rates constituting the fertility schedule² and representing a synthetic measure of fertility³, is the total fertility rate⁴ or total fertility⁴. Other summary period indices can be obtained, such as the total legitimate fertility rate⁵, the summation of marriage duration-specific fertility rates, and the order-specific total fertility rate⁶, the summation of age-specific fertility rates order by order. The ratio of births to marriages⁷ is computed by relating the number of births of a given year, either to the marriages of the year, or to a weighted average of the marriages of the current and of the preceding years.

640

Where induced abortion (604-2) has been legalized, it is possible to compile statistics on legal abortions (604-4). The abortion rate¹ is a measure of the frequency of abortion in a population during a given period, usually a year. Abortions may be related to the total population or to the number of women in the reproductive ages and may be specific for age, parity or any other characteristic. The abortion ratio² is a measure of the frequency of abortions in relation to the number of live births (601-4) during the same period. The life-time abortion rate³ is the sum of Templat:NewTextTerm and is a synthetic measure of abortion per woman or per 1000 women.