Kamus Demografi Pelbagai Bahasa, Edisi Kedua, Volum Bahasa Malaysia

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350

Terdapat perbezaan antara penduduk bekerja¹ atau penduduk aktif ekonomi¹ dan penduduk tidak bekerja² atau penduduk tidak aktif ekonomi². Penduduk bekerja terdiri daripada individu yang terlibat dalam kegiatan-kegiatan berhasil³. Kegiatan berhasil atau kegiatan ekonomi³ adalah aktiviti yang menyumbang kepada penjanaan pendapatan. Pekerja keluarga tanpa upah (353-5) biasanya termasuk dalam penduduk aktif ekonomi. Suri rumah⁴ terlibat dalam tugas-tugas domestik tidak berbayar, tidak termasuk pelajar, pesara dan lain-lain. Ahli penduduk tidak aktif ekonomi kadangkala dirujuk sebagai tanggungan⁵ (358-1) di mana mereka disara oleh penduduk bekerja. (lihat, walau bagaimanapun, aspek yang berbeza mengenai istilah ini terdapat pada perenggan 358). Nisbah bagi penduduk bekerja kepada jumlah penduduk biasanya dikira dengan merujuk kepada kumpulan umur-jantina atau kategori lain yang tertentu di panggil nisbah aktiviti⁶ atau nisbah penyertaan tenaga buruh⁶.

351

Pekerja-pekerja¹ yang membentuk penduduk bekerja boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai bekerja² atau tidak bekerja³. Menurut konsep tenaga buruh (350-1 *), hanya individu yang aktif mencari kerja⁴ atau pemberhentian kerja sementara semasa tempoh tertentu biasanya dikira sebagai tidak bekerja. Penduduk bekerja⁵ terdiri daripada kesemua yang bekerja untuk mencari pendapatan. Dalam kalangan aktif ekonomi, sebahagian besar mungkin dipaksa oleh keadaan ekonomi sesebuah negara atau masa tertentu untuk bekerja kurang daripada kemampuan dan kesanggupan; dalam keadaan ini, istilah pengangguran⁶ atau pengangguran separa⁶ akan digunakan. Pekerja pinggir⁷ yang hanya terlibat dalam kegiatan ekonomi pada masa-masa tertentu selalunya diklasifikasikan sebagai di luar daripada tenaga buruh menurut konsep pekerja berpenghasilan (350-1 *).

352

Klasifikasi pekerjaan¹ bagi penduduk bekerja (350-1) menunjukkan ahli-ahlinya dikelaskan mengikut pekerjaan². Persamaan dalam kerja yang dilakukan termasuk persamaan dalam kemahiran dan latihan adalah kriteria utama yang digunakan dalam mengkelaskan pekerjaan kepada kumpulan-kumpulan pekerjaan³ atau kelas-kelas pekerjaan³.

353

Penduduk bekerja (350-1) biasanya diklasifikasikan mengikut status kerja¹. Dalam klasifikasi ini, majikan-majikan² dibezakan daripada pekerja-pekerja³ dan turut dibezakan daripada pekerja sendiri⁴ atau pekerja-pekerja bebas⁴. Kedua-duanya tidak menggaji pekerja tetapi seperti juga majikan, mereka mungkin dibantu oleh pekerja-pekerja keluarga⁵ atau pembantu-pembantu keluarga⁵ tanpa upah yang biasanya dibezakan sebagai kumpulan yang berasingan. Kombinasi pekerjaan dan status klasifikasi boleh digunakan untuk membina kategori-kategori status sosial⁶.

354

Various sub-groups of the category of employees (353-3) are sometimes distinguished. One such sub-group is home workers¹ or cottage workers¹, who work in their own homes, sometimes for several employers. Among the employees a distinction is sometimes made between manual workers² and non-manual workers³ or clerical and office workers³. Manual workers may be further sub-divided according to their skill⁴, with skilled workers⁵, semi-skilled workers⁶, and unskilled workers⁷ being distinguished. Apprentices⁸ are sometimes shown as a sub-category of employees.

355

Among the employees (353-3) a distinction is often made between the managerial staff¹, who make policy decisions; the executive staff² who apply the decisions; and supervisors³ or foremen³ who direct the operatives.

356

Special classifications apply in agriculture. Farmers¹ or farm operators¹ are those who farm the land for profit; among them we distinguish between farm-owners², who own their land, tenant farmers³, who rent it from a landlord, and share-croppers³, who give a portion of the crop in return for the use of land and livestock. Agricultural laborers⁴ are persons working who are employed by farmers.

357

The working population may also be classified by industry¹ or branch of economic activity¹. This classification depends on the nature of the firm² or establishment² that the individual works for. Generally importance is attached to the division of the population into agricultural workers³ and non-agricultural workers⁴. Government employees⁵ are sometimes, and military personnel⁶ or members of the armed forces⁶ are generally shown separately, but employees of public enterprises are counted as a rule with the rest of the industrial population. Industries are generally classified in three sectors, the primary sector⁷ (agriculture, hunting, fishing and mining), the secondary sector⁸ (manufacturing, construction and utilities), and the tertiary sector⁹ (commerce, finance, transport industries, and service industries). In developing countries the traditional sector¹⁰ is often listed separately and opposed to the modern sector of the economy.

358

The economically inactive population may be divided into dependents¹ (350-5) and self-supporting persons². Dependents depend for their support on the efforts of earners³ or breadwinners³; this is for example the case of housewives (350-4) and dependent children⁴. Self-supporting persons have sufficient means for their subsistence. They may be rentiers⁵ or persons of independent means⁵, retired persons or pensioners⁶. A special category of dependents is that of persons receiving public assistance⁷ or public welfare recipients⁷. Persons incapable of work are called unemployable⁸. The ratio of the inactive to the active population is called the economic dependency ratio⁹.

359

It is possible to classify the population by the sector of economic activity from which they derive their livelihood, dependants being put into the same category as their breadwinners. We speak of the population dependent on¹ a particular branch of activity and in particular of the population dependent on agriculture². The term agricultural population² is sometimes used as a synonym, but may also be employed in the sense of farm population² which lives on farms or is dependent on agriculture and which is distinguished from the non-farm population³ or non-agricultural population³.

360

The infirm¹ or handicapped¹ are often separately shown in censuses. They are classified according to the nature of their infirmity² or handicap². Physical infirmities³ or physical handicaps³ such as blindness, or deaf-mutism are generally distinguished from mental infirmities⁴ or mental handicaps⁴, such as feeblemindedness or dementia.

361

The study of the working life¹ of individuals includes the study of the accession to the labor force² and of the separation from the labor force³. At accession it is possible to distinguish those who have never been active, from those who belonged to the labor force at an earlier date; separations may be listed by cause, e.g. death, retirement⁴, temporary withdrawal. The analysis may proceed by cohort or period, and it involves rates of accession to the tabor force⁵, or probabilities of accession to the labor force⁶, rates of separation from the labor force⁷ or probabilities of separation from the labor force⁸, eventually by cause; these indices are computed by age or age-group.

362

These indices serve to compute tables of working life¹, by period or cohort. In addition to the probabilities described in the previous paragraph, these tables contain the distributions by age at accession to the labor force² and by age at separation from the labor force³, (eventually by cause, before and after accounting for mortality), the mean age at accession to the labor force⁴ and the mean age at separation from the labor force⁵. The expectation of working life⁶, the gross expectation of working life⁷ (which excludes the effect of mortality) and the net expectation of working life⁸ (which includes it) all represent the mean number of years of working life that remain to be lived at each age by the active population. For those entering the labor force at that age, this expectation constitutes the mean duration of working life⁹; a similar index can be computed for all ages at accession taken together.